Design And Innovation The Sphinx Of Taharqo - 1171 Words

DESIGN AND INNOVATION: THE SPHINX OF TAHARQO INTRODUCTION: Since its establishment, the British Museum has been an iconic symbol of human culture, art, and history. It was built around 263 years ago and has served as the storehouse for many iconic discoveries over the centuries (Caleca, 1979). With a collection of almost 8 million artifacts and historical objects, it s hard to choose one. Each object has its own value in the museum and reflects the ancient times (Caleca, 1979). In this paper, we will be discussing the artifact called The Sphinx of Tharaqo† that is preserved in the British Museum. HISTORY OF THE OBJECT: Sphinxes are generally considered as Egyptian icons. The most famous sphinx could be seen in Giza, Egypt. Actually,†¦show more content†¦DISCOVERY EXHIBITION OF THE SPHINX IN THE MUSEUM: The sphinx is located in the eastern wing of the museum. This is a fairly small artifact comparing with the original sphinx located at Giza, Egypt. It is famous for its projection both Kushite and Egyptian elements. The lion shown in the body of the sphinx is done in typical Egyptian style like the grand sphinx itself, while the face of the artifact clearly Sudanese resemblance of Taharqo, the black king. There are hieroglyphics and symbols on the statue clarifies the fact that it is a real and legitimate portrait of the great King Taharqo. The statue is kept in the central of the room in a glass box (Caleca, 1979). The statue is only accessible for viewing. Visitors are not allowed to touch the box at any cost, but they are allowed to take pictures. Besides the box, there is black and white steel panel where description about the statue is written. It’s said there that, Taharqo was in fact, the fourth pharaoh to rule both the kingdoms of ancient Egypt and Kush together, durin g the Third Transitional Period of the middle age (Török, 2002). Also, there was a mention that, this statue was built around 680 B.C. The statue was first discovered by archaeologists at a demolished stone temple in Nubia (now known as Sudan), which is situated in the south-eastern part of the Amun Temple at Kawa (now Gematon). The excavations were conducted and monitored by the University of Oxford in 1930 (MacGregor, 2012). Experts believe

Organizational Culture Of The M A - 1235 Words

Question #1 Select a pair of organizations that have gone through a process of Merger and/or Acquisition (MA), describe the culture of the organizations prior to the MA. Provide examples that illustrate aspects of the organizational culture. Describe the process of MA. Did the process succeed, if yes, please outline the reasons of success, impact, etc..? If the MA did not succeed, why did it fail, impact, etc..? Give examples wherever appropriate. The two organizations that are selected for the process of merger and/or acquisition (MA) are Chrysler and General Motors. This proposed merger dates back to the year 2008, when the United States economy was in a far different state then the present day. The Great Recession was beginning to†¦show more content†¦Calamites such as botched mergers of BMW and Rover, or Ford’s buy of Land Rover and Jaguar, or Daimler and Chrysler from a few years prior. The current proposed merger of General Motors and Chrysler was brought up due to the economic conditions, as both companies were suffering tremendously despite governmental intervention by the Federal Reserve. Prior to the planned merger, General Motors had been in constant state of restructuring dating back to 1993 [1]. These past 15 years for General Motors consisted of constant buyouts, write-downs, streamlining, plant closures, dealer write-offs, and other restructuring efforts. Real sizeable profits came during the lat e 90s to early 2000s when gas prices were cheap (owing to the line of trucks and SUVs cranked out by General Motors) and housing prices were over inflated. There were very few car companies that did not earn decent profits during this timeframe, but any other cyclical downturn of the economy sent General Motors into a tailspin financially. In fact, General Motors was often termed the car company that was too big to fail, where the ultimate size of the corporation seemingly was the only factor keeping it alive. To increase this size, Chrysler was offered to merge with General Motors. Chrysler was in slightly better shape, but still failing in 2008. Recent years displayed modest profit, but similar turmoil amongst the upper management caused some re-organizing of the company in the early 2000s [1]. While

Role of Communication Technology-.com

Questions: 1.What is Information technology? 2.Have Computer made it easier or more difficult to gather true Information? 3.Information Technology in Students learning. Answer: Introduction Information technology can be widely referred to the applications of computers that help in storing, analyzing, retrieving and transmitting information often in context of a business or for personal usages. It basically refers to the use of computers to process electronic data. The study or use of computer and telecommunication systems for storing and processing data is known as information system. The use of information system has revolutionized the way people perform their daily tasks. However, every technology has some positive and negative aspects. This report discusses the effect of computers in peoples life and evaluates whether, it is a source of gathering true information. It further discusses the use of information system in students learning processes (Blackwell et al. 2013). 1.Information technology mainly refers to the use of computers in performing various tasks. It acts as a platform to store, manage and modify various tasks. Information technology has increasing use in different sector of business as it has an ability to view changes in the global market more easily. It has further brought an easy access to the different learning resources, which further helped in improving the teaching skills and learning abilities. Now a days, computers are considered as one of the most important devices that a person can utilize in order to store and process vital information (Lajoie and Derry 2013). Majority of the people rely on information technology for obtaining much vital information and as an important medium of knowledge sharing as well. With the advent of information technology, sharing of data has become a lot easier than it used to be before. Information technology can therefore be defined as a branch of engineering that uses telecommunication and compu ters in storing, retrieving and transmission of the information in this world of technology. It is an important medium of acquisition and retrieval of numerical and textual data that is important for business and learning purposes. Information technology offers a medium of innovation. It incorporates a wide range of areas that include information systems, computer systems, programming languages as so on. It is a platform that can render and provide information, data and different types of perceived knowledge that can be obtained in visual, text or multimedia format. Therefore, it is being considered as an important means of obtaining information that is suitable for business and other sectors due to the assistance it provides. An information technology system is capable of equipping business sectors through core services, as it makes comparatively easier to perform the various functions associated with a business (Abramovich 2012). The learning sector is furthermore benefitted by the technology as it makes it easier for the students to extract information online. The use of information technology as a medium further helps the professors in imparting distant education. Therefore, it can be said that information technology has a huge role to play in terms of knowledge sharing. It automates the various functions and processes making it easier for the users to execute and perform complex tasks. Similar is the case in the field of learning as well. Information technology has largely revolutionized the traditional educational practices. Accessing the learning materials have become considerably easy with the facility of immediacy of information provided by the information technology (Wu et al. 2013). Therefore, it can certainly be said that information technology has largely transformed the way of imparting and receiving education. 2.The internet and the computer considerably help in collecting, organizing and presenting the information globally. Computers are able to store and present a large amount of data and internet helps in sharing that data with the people all over the world. However, computer is not actually a source of information but an information processor. It is used to store and process data as information and can therefore be termed as a storehouse of information. One of the major advantages of computer coupled with internet is that it allows access to a large database of stored information (Fraillon, Schulz and Ainley 2013). Internet is a major source of information that is retrieved with a computer or similar devices. However, it is crucial to evaluate whether the information gathered from an open source is correct and relevant or not. Computers and Internet do provide a platform for retrieving authentic information, however, there are certain sources that can provide with the information that might not be authentic or true. Therefore, it is very difficult to address whether the computer and internet are making is easier to gather true information or making it more difficult for the people to gather the same. Computer and internet can be termed as a secondary source of information and therefore it is important to understand what kind of information people want to gather from internet. Information obtained from the official sites of the companies or learning institution is authentic and genuine and there is no doubt about that (Ali, Haolader and Muhammad 2013). However, information obtained from unrecognized sources may not return an authentic value. This is therefore an area of concern about use of computer and internet in gathering information. Internet is a rich source of information as people get to know what is happening around the world by sitting at their home with the help of internet. Many sources of information available over the internet can be accessed or modified by the people using it, which is an advantage and a disadvantage of the internet usage as a source of information at the same time. It helps in creating awareness among the people and at the same time make them addicted to the virtual world. Therefore, it can be said that computer and internet are a major source of information gathering; however, it cannot surpass the books and manual sources of information in providing authentic solutions. Computer definitely made it easier to gather information but it cannot guarantee the authenticity of the information (O'Malley 2012). It is therefore possible that the computers are drifting people away from the true sources of information. 3.Computers have largely transformed the learning procedures for students. The concept of e-learning and distant education has been possible only because of the advent of computers and internet. E-learning expands the option for teaching by making use of the technology. The successful use of information technology in fetching and gathering information have now inextricably linked with the institutions imparting higher education offering an option of e learning. The absence of direct guidance of the instructor used to be a major hurdle of students in taking up distant education. This problem is eliminated with the advent of information technology. The online learning facility has made it easier for students to have an expert guidance 24*7. Furthermore, the internet acts as a rich source of information thus making the process of learning even easier. It provides an electronic platform, which is designed to provide augment learning and a more comprehensive learning experience. Information Technology plays a significant role in the education by enhancing the process of learning. It helps in improving the process of how students achieve knowledge. It further helps in improving the teaching skills of the professors and learning abilities of the students (Fu 2013). It allows the increasing use of audio visual education that considerably makes the learning procedure even more easy. The emerging technologies challenge the traditional methods of learning. Furthermore, presence of internet widens the learning resources and its availability as well. Knowledge can be easily gained with the help of information technology and therefore it is considerably being implemented and adopted in different universities for enhancing the learning procedures for the students (Livingstone 2012). Researches prove that the use of information and communication technology considerably helps in improving the quality of education. With the advent of information technology in education, the students are able to get involved in different skill oriented activities as they get to share and interact with the fellow learners without any geographical barrier. Therefore, it can be said that the information technology era has considerably transformed students learning (Sarkar 2012). Conclusion Therefore, from the above discussion, it can be said that information technology has transformed the way people do work. The report discusses in brief, whether advent of computers and internet have made it easier to collect true information or making it difficult. Information technology is definitely helping people to gather more information than it could be possible to collect by manual methods, however, it is difficult to say whether people are getting hold of authentic information or not. Information technology has considerably revolutionized the traditional learning procedures and practices. Use of information technology has made is easier for the students to obtain knowledge irrespective of any geographic and time barrier. This is the reason; different universities are adopting different information technology tools for enhancing the learning processes. Therefore, it can be concluded that information technology is an inseparable part of the modern world and is capable of revolut ionizing the way people do their work References Abramovich, S., 2012.Computers in education. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.. Ali, G., Haolader, F.A. and Muhammad, K., 2013. The role of ICT to make teaching-learning effective in higher institutions of learning in Uganda.International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology,2(8), pp.4061-4073. Blackwell, C.K., Lauricella, A.R., Wartella, E., Robb, M. and Schomburg, R., 2013. Adoption and use of technology in early education: The interplay of extrinsic barriers and teacher attitudes.Computers Education,69, pp.310-319. Fraillon, J., Schulz, W. and Ainley, J., 2013. International computer and information literacy study: Assessment framework. Fu, J.S., 2013. ICT in education: A critical literature review and its implications.International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology,9(1), p.112. Lajoie, S.P. and Derry, S.J. eds., 2013.Computers as cognitive tools. Routledge. Livingstone, S., 2012. Critical reflections on the benefits of ICT in education.Oxford review of education,38(1), pp.9-24. O'Malley, C. ed., 2012.Computer supported collaborative learning(Vol. 128). Springer Science Business Media. Sarkar, S., 2012. The role of information and communication technology (ICT) in higher education for the 21st century.Science,1(1), pp.30-41. Wu, H.K., Lee, S.W.Y., Chang, H.Y. and Liang, J.C., 2013. Current status, opportunities and challenges of augmented reality in education.Computers Education,62, pp.41-49.

Wedding Custom free essay sample

Chinese wedding customs Traditional Chinese marriage is a ceremonial ritual within Chinese societies that involve a marriage established by  pre-arrangement between families. A band of musicians with gongs and flute-like instruments accompanies the bride parade to grooms home. Similar music is also played at the wedding banquet. Depending on the region that the bride hails from, Chinese weddings will have different traditions such as  Tea Ceremony  or the use of a wedding emcee. In most southern Chinese wedding, the bride price is based on the grooms economic status.The idea of selling the daughter or bride isnt a phrase that is used often therefore the price of the bride isnt too demanding. Most of the time the bride price is in the form of gold jewellery, fine fabric, or money, even a roast pig which symbolizes the bride to be a virgin. Wedding presents are given by the elderly couples or couples that are older than the newlyweds and tea is served by the younger family members. We will write a custom essay sample on Wedding Custom or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Malay wedding customs A  Malay  wedding ceremony spreads over two days, beginning with the  akad nikah  ceremony on the first day.The groom signs the marriage contract and agrees to provide the bride with a  mas kahwin  (dowry). After that, their hands are dyed with henna during the berinai besar ceremony. The brides hair is also trimmed or her eyebrows shaped by a beautician known as the  mak andam. On the second day, the bride is with her family and friends with musicians and bunga manggar or palm blossom carriers at the brides house. At the house they are greeted with sprinkling of yellow rice and scented water.

Emperor Galerius, A Brief History essays

Emperor Galerius, A Brief History essays Emperor Galerius was the ruler of Rome. He was born in 250 and died in 311. He served a military career and is best remembered for issuing edicts ordering tolerance of Christianity. In upper Moesia, near Florentine, there is a small Danube village where Galerius was born. His parents came from an area beyond Danube, and his father was a simple peasant. Galerius was a herdsman before he joined the army. In the army he had a successful career, and rose to become a senior officer during the reign of Diocletian. During this time, Galerius, along with Constantias Cholorus, was chosen to be one of the principal leaders by the Emperor Diocletian. Galerius received the rank of Junior Caesar and that is when he changed his name to Gaius Valerious Maximainus. He ruled over the powerful Balkan Provinces, which were located in the dioceses of Pannonia Moesia and Thraciae, along with the Diocese of Asiana in turkey, which is in Asia Minor. The most important job in this position was of guarding the Danube frontier from any incursions from the Goths, who were pressing to take hold of the Danube frontier regions. In addition, after successfully defending against the Goths, he also fought off the Samaritans and Marcomanni in AD 296-297. He then divided the lands and formed a new Province in the northern half of lower Pannonia, which he named after his wife Valeria. Then, in AD 296, Diocletian called on Galerius to help deal with the Persians' invasion of Syria. In the course of the conflict, Galerius had to cross the Euphrates River, but he suffered defeat and had to withdraw and in doing so, lost control of the province of Mesopotania. Because of his failure, Emperor Diocletian punished Galerius and publicly humiliated him. This humiliation led Galerius to attempt to defeat the Persians for a second time in AD 297. This time, he prepared a much stronger army, and with a plan to attack the Persian forces and take all they had, including th...

Helicopter parents, noobs and brain candy - Emphasis

Helicopter parents, noobs and brain candy Helicopter parents, noobs and brain candy As a new year begins, you cant help but look back on the one just passed: its gains and losses, its highs and lows, the memorable moments and those best forgotten. So why not do the same for the words and terms that entered our lives or at least the dictionaries in 2011?* You can make your own mind up about which of those categories these words fall into, but more to the point can you pick the correct definition for each from the choices below? 1. boomerang childa young adult who regularly travels abroad, returning home only to save up enough money to go travelling againa young adult who returns to live at his or her family home, especially for financial reasons a child who must divide his or her time between the two households of separated parents2. helicopter parenta parent whose presence in his or her child’s life is sporadic owing to business or other outside responsibilitiesa parent who is overly involved in the life of his or her child a parent who travels extensively with young children in tow3. robocalla telephone call from an automated source that delivers a pre-recorded message to a large number of people a voicemail message delivered by a robotic voice as a result of a text message inadvertently being sent to a landlinethe experience of calling a helpline and being faced with a recorded series of instructions and pre-recorded information4. brain candybroadly appealing, undemanding entertainment that is not intellectually stimulating a person (usually a woman) who is considered to be both highly intelligent and very attractivean ironic term for foods that are supposedly beneficial for one’s body and brain, but not pleasurable to consume5. nooba desirable young man or woman (from ‘nubile’)a foolish mistake or gaffe, perpetrated because one is new to an activitya novice or newcomer to a profession or activity 6. mumpreneura person who makes a living selling items targeted at new mothersa woman who combines running her own business with looking after her children a woman who starts a new career or business after her children have left home7. mamila middle-aged man in Lycra a middle-aged man in leggingsa man who favours dressing in animal-prints8. emberrorista person who records incidents involving friends or acquaintances in embarrassing situations and posts them on the interneta person who targets members of the public or celebrities with practical jokes using hidden cameras for television or online broadcastan organisation or person that seeks to reveal potentially embarrassing information – often as a political weapon 9. foodoira film charting the journey food items take, from cultivation to consumptionthe practice of bringing food into the bedroom (combination of ‘food’ and ‘boudoir’)a blog or book combining memoir and recipes 10. nurdlea very small pellet of plastic that serves as raw material in the manufacture of plastic products an obstacle or hurdle that must be negotiated within an online gaming worldan awkward or strange person Let us know how you got on. Have you used any of the terms? (Weve already heard from a keen cricketer about an alternative meaning for one of them.) If not, will you be adding any of them to your vocabulary? And which ones (if any) are you hoping to forget long before the year is out? * Words taken from 2011 entries in Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary, Concise Oxford English Dictionary and Collins English Dictionary And if thats put you in a quizzing mood, why not pit yourself against our fiendish spelling test?

Leadership Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leadership Paper - Essay Example These leaders draw their authority from various attributes including charisma, formal power or even behavioral or reverence power. The leader influences occupational behaviors of individuals and groups through systematic structures, which facilitates communication within an organization. Miller (2011) adds that leadership, especially business leadership, requires some inherent social and professional skills in order to facilitate execution of responsibilities. In this case, different business leaders possess different leadership skills, which directly influence the success level of their practices. Leaders with comprehensive and positive leadership skills have high chances of achieving greater goals compared to those with the minimum requisite skills. Acquisition of requisite leadership skills depends on factors like social and economic background of an individual. In this regard, we will illustrate the application of leadership skills by examining one successful business leader with in the Islamic business context. In the essay, we feature an influential business leader from Saudi Arabia called Al-Waleed bin Talal. Al-Waleed, who belongs to the Saudi Royal family, is a business leader and an investor. He was born in Jeddah on March 7, 1955. He derives his roots from Arabs most celebrated personalities, King Abdul-Aziz Alsaud, who was the founder and leader of Saudi Arabia. In addition, he is the grandson of Raid El Solh, the iconic figure behind Lebanon’s drive for independence. His father, who is a member of the royal family is Talai bin Abdilaziz Al Saud and his mother Princes Mona El-Solh. His father remains influential in Saudi’s governance up to date, especially on matters relating to the rule of law and national constitution the society. Al-Waleed resides in the Saudi Arabia’s city of Riyadh with his wife Princess Deborah and his two children. Being a member of the Royal family, Al-Waleed manages vast personal and family wealth

Ww1, roaring 20s, theodore roosevelt Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ww1, roaring 20s, theodore roosevelt - Assignment Example He propagated for a government that serves as an agent of reform for the benefit of the citizens. Through his belief in the government, he gave it, more power to regulate big businesses so that its activities did not affect the general public negatively. Roosevelt also revolutionized foreign affairs because he believed America had a responsibility to build a strong foreign policy. In terms of the presidential style of leadership, Roosevelt incorporated charisma into his political equation. He had a strong attachment to the public and knew how to use the media to shape public opinion (Giblin 151). Even after his death, his legacy continues today and Americans continue to commemorate his life. When Germany declared its intentions to resume unrestricted submarine attacks on Allied and neutral shipping areas within the prescribed war zones, President Woodrow Wilson did not find a reason to join the battle. He refrained from asking for a declaration of war on Germany since he doubted whether the U.S. public would support him (Giblin 51). He thought providing ample proof that the Germans intended to attack the U.S. ships without warning would more important instead of seeking support without proof. Wilson left open a possibility to negotiate the situation with the Germans in case they refrained from attacking the U.S shipping. Nevertheless, the German submarines sank several American ships throughout the February and March period, resulting in the death of several U.S. citizens and seamen. Thus, on February 26, President Wilson requested the Congress to allow him to arm the U.S. merchant ships with naval equipment and personnel (Giblin 121). The request proved unfruitful, and Wilson was forced to arm the merchant ships through his executive order. These among other conflicts between the Germany and the U.S. forced Americans to declare war on Germany in order to protect their territory. The 1920s is often regarded as the â€Å"Roaring Twenties,† and

The chosen organization that shall be analyzed is Thringstone Supermarket Essay Example for Free

The chosen organization that shall be analyzed is Thringstone Supermarket Essay The chosen organization that shall be analyzed is Thringstone Supermarket, a well run, off license/newsagent located in a village called Thringstone, based in Small Heath. The organisation is owned by a married couple named Mr and Mrs Varu who are the sole proprietors. They sell a variety of products and ensure that customer needs and wants are met. Thringstone Supermarket has many regular customers, as this is one of the main Supermarkets as you enter in to the village. The supermarket is one of the local stores that are recognized by its entire local people as it offers a great variety of products. Within the Supermarket many products are sold including: Groceries Confectionary Newspapers, Magazines   Cards Stationary Alcohol Foods such as dairy products   Frozen foods Automated Teller Machine (ATM) 2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE SERVICE CONCEPT The service concept is the way in which the customer perceives the organizations services (Johnston and Clark 2001). There are four key elements that form the service concept: à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ The Service Experience Customers encounter different experiences which may vary from time to time when using a particular service. Mr. and Mrs. Varu can contribute to the service concept by delivering a friendly customer service experience, to make customers feel welcomed, this is what they expect. The customers want to do their shopping in a stress free, friendly environment and this is what Mr and Mrs Varu aim to achieve. Customers also like the noise level to be kept to a minimum when shopping so that they are not easily distracted and so that they can talk amongst themselves. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ The Service Operation Mr. and Mrs. Varu and the staff have a personalized basis with there customers, they recognize the majority of there customers and are on a first name basis. There is a trusting relationship between the customers and Mr. and Mrs. Varu and staff, therefore can guarantee that they can ask for assistance when needed without any negative attitude, therefore Mr. and Mrs. Varu provide assistance when required in a friendly manner to help deliver the service successfully. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ The Service Outcome This is the result the customer has received from the service provided. Mr. and Mrs. Varu aim to provide customers requirements by delivering there service and products successfully without any problems i.e. queues, no stock available, therefore customers can tell their friends and family by word of mouth that they received high quality service at Thringstones. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ The Service Value Shoppers value the experience and outcome in any organization, therefore the value must be cost effective otherwise customers will go elsewhere. Mr. and Mrs. Varu need to ensure that there customers are receiving a value for money service. Mr. and Mrs. Varu ensure that no out of date stock is displayed because customers only want to purchase goods that are to date and having out-of-date stock will give Thringstones a bad reputation which will send customers elsewhere because they are not receiving value for money products. Also, as they are situated in a village, and its miles to the nearest town centre, there ATM must be working at all times so customers can access their money easily instead of having to make journeys into town. The design elements for Thringstone Supermarket is available in appendix 1 3.0 The Servicescape An organizations servicescape describes the physical and informational surroundings of the delivery of the service provided. To secure strategy advantages from the servicescape, the needs of ultimate users and the requirements of various functional units must be incorporated into environmental design decisions. (Bitner 1992). * The physical appearance can determine where all products are kept. This can be identified as the process layout, where all similar products are put together, i.e. freezer foods are kept in one place. * The physical appearance of Thringstones also creates an impression to the customers. The letterhead is in white lettering with a red background. This makes Thringstones stand out and therefore inviting due to the bright and bold letters. * Customers require baskets to out there shopping in to, which allows the customers to shop comfortably and without difficulty. * Thringstones is located in a small village, which is easily accessible to customers; therefore the physical location of Thringstones is ideally suitable for customers. * The layout of the shop can help customers, access products easily. The aisles are kept clear and clean at all times in order for customers to gain access to products. * Health and Safety for customers is very important, i.e. if there is a wet floor, a wet floor sign is there for customers. Mr. and Mrs. Varu ensure that security cameras are placed around and outside the shop. * Mr. and Mrs. Varu use an automated stock control system which informs them when stock is low. This can keep control on the availability of products in stock. 3.1 Influencing customer behavior Mr. and Mrs. Varu believe customers behavior can be determined by the servicescape. * The freshness, clarity, and lightness influences customers behavior in the way they shop at Thringstones . If Thringstones has boxes of goods and baskets around the store this will influence the customer to shop in another place. * Products are neatly presented at Thringstones so that they are attractive to look at. Special displays are set out for the best presentation. A messy environment will make customers think twice about where to shop. * Availability of goods is always there i.e. if customers require a certain product that is not in stock, Mr. and Mrs. Varu can make sure that he orders it in so that it is made available for the customer the next time round. * Long queues will make customers uncomfortable, especially if they are in a hurry. Mr. and Mrs. Varu could loose money due to this. 4.0 Process Mapping The service process map combines the insights of flowcharting the service delivery process with the power of multivariate data analysis techniques (Collier 1991). The design of the service is important because the customer is directly and immediately involved in the delivery transaction. The customer is present and involved and they may even serve themselves. Appendix 2 provides a service process map for Thringstones. 4.1 Analysis of Process Map A method for analyzing the process map is by answering a set of questions to derive maximum advantage from it, these questions are obtained from Johnston Clark (2001). * Does the process support the strategic intention? Mr. and Mrs. Varus main objective is to provide a high quality service for there customers. Therefore, Mr. and Mrs. Varu must ensure all customers are able to purchase the relevant stock by firstly checking there stock availability and secondly by ensuring there shelves are fully stocked otherwise delays will be caused by staff having to get the stock from the back office. * Does each activity provide added value? At Thringstones added value activities are existent such as providing baskets, carrier bags and freezer bags. If these were not available customers would have to use there hands to carry their shopping, therefore Mr. and Mrs. Varu would be losing a lot of money due to customers purchasing limited goods. * Who owns and has responsibility for the process? Mr. and Mrs. Varu as well as the customers are responsible for the service process. Without either of them the process would not exist. Appendix 4 identifies the roles and responsibilities for the staff and customers. * How can the process be improved? Mr. and Mrs. Varu must ensure that stock is available at hand for customers, in order to meet there requirements. To maintain that customers can continue to shop in a clean and relaxing environment To ensure staff are fully trained to provide high quality customer service, and are able to deal with all types of customers in the correct manner i.e. difficult customers. If customers are waiting in long queues then Mr. and Mrs. Varu must realize that a new till may be required so delays will not take place. To provide a service where another member of staff packs the customers goods, this will speed the process up in the queues. * How efficient is the process? The process is very efficient as it aims the meet the organizations objectives. However this can only be achieved by ensuring that there is a continuous customer flow without any delays. Delays cause inefficiencies, which lead to dissatisfied customers, therefore Mr. Mrs. Varu are not fulfilling there business objective, which could cause a loss in profits. 5.0 The Service Quality Gap Model The service quality is the gap between a customers expected service and perceived service. A service quality gap model for Thringstones is available in appendix 3, and appendix 3.1 provides an analysis of the Service Quality Gap Model. 6.0 Job Design Mr. Mrs. Varu empower there staff for them to obtain the initiative to make decisions without consulting them first. Empowerment makes employees feel recognized and motivated as empowerment increases employees morale. Therefore empowering there staff will increase there productivity, reputation and provide a better service encounter. Appendix 4 provides the five dimensions to empowerment for Thringstones 7.0 Suggested improvements/recommendations Overall Mr. and Mrs. Varus Supermarket is an operation, which is customer orientated, like any other business operation he wishes to make as much profit as possible and at the same time keep customers satisfied by meeting their requirements. However, like any other business there is still, room for improvement and with the help of such policies and strategies, productivity and profit can be achieved for his business. This can be implemented in three was: 1. Increasing the number of tills in the shop 2. By introducing a Computer Bar coding system 3. Staff can be trained to be multi-skilled By increasing the capacity of tills, by adding in a further till can help in reducing the queuing system. As capacity is linked to time, many customers are not prepared to wait and maybe forced to shop elsewhere, this will lead to a reduction in sale and profit. Therefore by adopting this approach Mr. and Mrs. Varu can result in happier customers, and increase in productivity and even profits maybe achieved. Another area for improvement could be that a barcode system could be implemented, because at present Mr. and Mrs. Varu are running on a manual tilling system whereby they type in the price by hand and this is also another indicator of time wasting, thus leads to frustration for customers. This bar coding system could be implemented by scanning products through a computer which informs them what stock is in and it can also speed up the process dealing with all the customers without them having to waste time in queues. By using the computer bar code system this can help implement the Just In -Time Process. Instead of Mr. and Mrs. Varu going to the cash and carry, he can check on the computer of the goods, which are running low, and have them delivered by the cash and carry, this will result in less money being held in stock and also lead to extra space saved by not having unwanted stock, which can instead be converted into extra shop floor space. Thirdly, staff are to be trained so that they are multi-skilled. This will enable them to carry out a variety of jobs rather than just the ordinary replenishing of stock. For example, if they are till trained then the delivery system will be faster and this will lead to customer satisfaction. Overall, Mr. and Mrs. Varu can have competitive advantage over other newsagents in the area, as they will be using the more traditional approach and therefore by saving storage space, they can convert the back office area into shop floor space, which means they can sell extra products and will mean that customers are happy with the delivery of the service. Bibliography Books: Johnston, R and Clark, C (2001), Service Operations Management, Financial Times Prentice Hall Galloway, L, Rowbotham, F and Azhashemi, M (2000), Operations Management in Context, Butterworth Heinemann Oxford Lecture Notes: Lecture Two Job Design in Services Lecture Five the Design of Service Operations Journals: Bitner, M.J., Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees, Journal of Marketion, vol.56, April 1992, pp. 57-71. Gurdarshan Mudhar P01070281

Pop art was a direct response to the commercial and consumer society Es

Pop art was a direct response to the commercial and consumer society of modern time†. Explain why this might be true. Pop art was an art formed by artist expressing their views. â€Å"Pop art was a direct response to the commercial and consumer society of modern time†. Explain why this might be true. Pop art was an art formed by artist expressing their views on modern day society. Pop art originally emerged from England in the fifties; although it was not exploited in England, in fact during the fifties it wasn’t very well implemented. In the sixties, in New York, pop art began to have a high prospective. Many artists soon realized that pop art could be expressed in a variety of forms, this soon related to its commercial use. Pop art soon became a major category in the art world. Numerous artists couldn’t really differentiate between sculptures or paintings if they were pop art, cubism, mosaic and many others. The category pop art can extend to any reach of art. The answer was simple; they could be in more than one category. Pop art brought art to the 20th and 21st century. Pop art was originally a descendant of Dada, Dada was a movement in the 1920’s but came to halt in the thirties due to the great depression that shook the world. Marcel Duchamp tried to breach the gap between art and society, his goal was to bring them closer together. Roy Lichtenstein set the highest standard and led the way of pop art. Lichtenstein was and still is considered...

Because I could Not Stop for Death values

â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop For Death† Emily Dickinson During the start of the realist movement, Emily Dickinson wrote â€Å"Because I could Not Stop for Death,† questioning the communal values of religion and eternity. The poem, at first, looks to be about the eternal afterlife, but with closer inspection of the language, (i. e. â€Å"Surmised† is a word of uncertainty) we find that she is actually not sure about the eternity of afterlife and all it entails. The 19th century was the beginning of a new era. Science and religion were beginning to intersect and to ome, clash.Dickinson's poem, in a way, is a direct comparison of this battle, as she is obviously struggling with idea of eternity and the traditional belief of the afterlife being heaven or hell. Dickinson uses realism in this poem by speaking of the reality of death, an event every living thing will experience, while using symbolism and personification. Death is personified as a gentleman who is gent ly taking her on a carriage ride. The first two lines, â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death/He kindly stopped for me-â€Å"(Dickinson, Line -2) symbolizes that the narrator has died but not on her own terms.She was not prepared for death, but Death â€Å"kindly' stopped for her. Dickinson personifies death, but is talking about the actual event of dying. Unlike the common fear among society of death, this Journey is calm and peaceful: â€Å"He knew no haste† (Dickinson, Line 5) and â€Å"For His Civility' (Dickinson Line 8) are phrases used to describe the gentle nature of death. On her Journey, she reflects the stages of her life. â€Å"We passed the School, where Children strove† (Dickinson,line 9) represents her childhood or youth.We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain† (Dickinson,line 1 1) represents the maturity of adulthood, and â€Å"We passed the Setting Sun† (Dickinson, line 12) represents the end. All of these events are common to everyone; childhood, adulthood, and death. Carol Frost writes, â€Å"There are no lectures and no overt theological speculations†¦ † . Hidden under the symbolism, lies only the process of dying. The poem questions the traditional values of religion and the beliefs that after death, comes eternity in a heavenly paradise.She is not accompanied by angels, here is no light leading to eternity, or visions of God reaching out his hands to embrace ner returning soul. Her actual beliets are unclear, but sne was clearly not religious. â€Å"Emily Dickenson lived in a time defined by the struggle to reconcile traditional Christian beliefs with newly emerging scientific concepts, the most influential being Darwinism. Dickinson's struggles with faith and doubt reflect her society's diverse perceptions of God, nature, and humankind. † (The Church). The scene as she comes closer to her destination is slowly getting dark and cold.We passed the Setting Sun/Or rather-He passed US† an d â€Å"The Dews drew quivering and chill† (Dickinson, lines 12-14) represent the leaving of the physical world and entering a dreary existence. At first, death was kind and now he's lured her into the darkness. A common belief among religious people is that when one dies, they enter a euphoric afterlife. As she reflects on the day of her death, she says, â€Å"Since then-tis Centuries- and yet/Feels shorter than the day/' first surmised the Horses' Heads/Were toward Eternity-â€Å"(Dickinson, lines 21-24).Dickinson gives no clear answer about her existence after death, but by the tone, she does not appear to be in a magical place. She also leaves the answer open to the reader's imagination by saying the centuries seemed shorter than the day she assumed she was going towards eternity. The 19th century introduced the ideology that mankind's creation had scientific explanations, and the beginning of the realist movement. These events mixed with Dickinson's already formed skep ticism, resulted in the creation of, â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death†.

Emilio Jacinto’s Trading Cooperative

A1457 Cooperatives: Principles and practices in the 21st century Kimberly A. Zeuli and Robert Cropp ABOUT THE COVER IMAGE: The â€Å"twin pines† is a familiar symbol for cooperatives in the United States. The Cooperative League of the USA, which eventually became the National Cooperative Business Association (NCBA), adopted it as their logo in 1922. The pine tree is an ancient symbol of endurance and immortality. The two pines represent mutual cooperation—people helping people. COOPERATIVES: ii Chapter 1 An introduction to cooperatives 1 Chapter 2 Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world 5Chapter 3 Cooperative history, trends, and laws in the United States 59 Chapter 8 Procedures for organizing a cooperative 69 Chapter 9 A summary of cooperative benefits and limitations 77 Notes 81 Glossary 85 Cooperative resources IN 49 Chapter 7 Cooperative financial management PRACTICES 39 Chapter 6 Cooperative roles, responsibilities, and communication & 27 Chapte r 5 Alternative business models in the United States PRINCIPLES 15 Chapter 4 Cooperative classification Contents Publication notes ? 89 THE 21ST CENTURY i Publication notes This publication is the fourth and most extensive revision of the Marvin A.Schaars’ text, Cooperatives, Principles and Practices, University of Wisconsin Extension—Madison, Publication A1457, July 1980. What has come to be known simply as â€Å"the Schaars book,† was originally written in 1936 by Chris L. Christensen, Asher Hobson, Henry Bakken, R. K. Froker, and Marvin Schaars, all faculty in the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Wisconsin—Madison. Since its first publication, the Schaars book has served as a basic reference for cooperative members and leaders, cooperative instructors and development specialists, and students of cooperatives throughout the UnitedStates and world. It has been translated into several languages. Although the Schaars book has been out of print for some time, the University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives (UWCC) continues to receive regular requests for copies. Its straightforward, basic information on the organization, structure, financing, and management of cooperatives is as needed and relevant today as ever. The revisions in this version, which reflect over two decades of learning about cooperative development as well as new cooperative laws and ways of doing business, will hopefully make it even more useful.Although we focus on cooperative businesses in the United States, and draw most of our references from the agricultural sector, most of the book’s content is pertinent to cooperatives anywhere, in any sector. Readers are encouraged to seek out other publications that deal more extensively with cooperative laws in their own states and countries, and provide more detailed information on consumer, service and worker-owned cooperatives and credit unions. ii Kimberly Zeuli and Robert Cropp, Assistant Professor and Professor Emeritus in the Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, re responsible for all of the editing and most of the revised text. The following individuals also contributed to various chapters: David Erickson, Director of Member Relations, Wisconsin Federation of Cooperatives E. G. Nadeau, Director of Research, Planning and Development, Cooperative Development Services David Trechter, Professor, University of Wisconsin— River Falls Richard Vilstrup, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wisconsin—Madison This revision would not have been possible without generous funding from The CooperativeFoundation, Inver Grove Heights, Minnesota. COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER 1 ? An introduction to cooperatives According to the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA): a cooperative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their com mon economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise. Cooperative leaders around the world recognize the ICA, a non-governmental organization with over 230 member organAlthough the word â€Å"cooperaizations from over 100 countries, as a leading tive† can be applied to many uthority on cooperative definition and values. 2 different types of group activities, in this publication The ICA definition recognizes the essential the term is used to reference element of cooperatives: membership is voluntary. Coercion is the antithesis of cooperation. Persons a formal business model, compelled to act contrary to their wishes are not which has relatively recent origins. The earliest coopera- truly cooperating. True cooperation with others arises from a belief in mutual help; it can’t be tive associations were created in Europe and North dictated. In authentic cooperatives, persons join The first signs ofAmerica during the 17th and voluntarily and have the freedom to quit the cooporganized hunting 18th centuries. These associ- erative at any time. 3 The forced collectives prevaactivity based around lent in the former Soviet Union, for example, were ations were precursors to communities are associated with not true cooperatives. cooperatives. The pioneers Homo erectus, of the Rochdale Society in Another widely accepted cooperative definition is modern human 19th-century England are ancestors who lived the one adopted by the United States Department between 500,000 and celebrated for launching the f Agriculture (USDA) in 1987: A cooperative is a 1. 5 million years ago modern cooperative user-owned, user-controlled business that distributes in Africa. movement. The unique conbenefits on the basis of use. This definition captures tribution of early cooperative organizers in what are generally considered the three primary England was codifying a guiding set of principles cooperative principles: user ownership, user and instigating the creation of new laws that control, and proportional distribution of benefits. helped foster cooperative business development. The â€Å"user-owner† principle implies that the peopleToday, cooperatives are found in nearly all countries. Chapters 2 and 3 trace the remarkable history who use the co-op (members) help finance the coof cooperative development internationally and in op and therefore, own the co-op. Members are responsible for providing at least some of the the United States. cooperative’s capital. The equity capital contribution of each member should be in equal proportion to that member’s use (patronage) of the coop. This shared financing creates joint ownership The cooperative model has been adapted to (part of the ICA cooperative definition). numerous and varied businesses.In 1942 Ivan G roups of individuals around the world and throughout time have worked together in pursuit of common goals. Examples of coop eration, or collective action, can be traced back to our prehistoric predecessors who recognized the advantages of hunting, gathering, and living in groups rather than on their own. What is a cooperative? Emelianoff, a respected cooperative scholar, remarked that â€Å"the diversity of cooperatives is kaleidoscopic and their variability is literally infinite. †1 As a consequence of this diversity, no universally accepted definition of a cooperative exists.Two definitions, however, are commonly used. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The â€Å"user-control† concept means that members of the co-op govern the business directly by voting on significant and long-term business decisions and indirectly through their representatives on the board of directors. Cooperative statutes and bylaws usually dictate that only active co-op members (those who use the co-op) can become voting directors, although non-members sometimes serve on boards in a non-voting, advisory THE 21ST CENTURY 1 cap acity. Advisory directors are becoming more common in large agricultural cooperatives in theUnited States, where complex financial and business operations require the expertise of financial and industry experts. Only co-op members can vote to elect their board of directors and on other cooperative actions. Voting rights are generally tied to membership status—usually one-member, one-vote—and not to the level of investment in or patronage of the cooperative. Cooperative law in a number of states in the United States and in other countries, however, also permits proportional voting. Instead of one vote per member, voting rights are based on the volume of business the member transacted he previous year with the cooperative. Generally, however, there is also a maximum number of votes any member may cast to prevent control by a minority of members. For example, a grain cooperative might permit one vote to be cast for each 1,000 bushels of grain marketed the year before, but any single member would be limited to a maximum of ten votes. Democratic control is maintained by tying voting rights to patronage. Equitable voting rights, or democratic control (as written in the ICA definition), are a hallmark of cooperatives. â€Å"Distribution of benefits on the basis of use,† escribes the principle of proportionality, another key foundation for cooperatives. Members should share the benefits, costs, and risks of doing business in equal proportion to their patronage. The proportional basis is fair, easily explained (transparent), and entirely feasible from an operational standpoint. To do otherwise distorts the individual contributions of members and diminishes their incentives to join and patronize the cooperative. 2 Co-op benefits may include better prices for goods and services, improved services, and dependable sources of inputs and markets for outputs. Most ooperatives also realize annual net profits, all or part of which are returned to members in proportion to their patronage (thus, they are aptly called patronage refunds). Cooperatives can also return a portion of their profits as dividends on investment. In the United States, however, federal and most state statutes set an 8 percent maximum on annual dividend payments. The purpose of these limits is to assure that the benefits of a cooperative accrue to those who use it most rather than to those who may have the most invested; the importance of capital is subordinated. Today, some co-op leaders and scholars consider his dividend restriction arbitrary and harmful to cooperatives. From their perspective, the 8 percent maximum makes investing in cooperatives less attractive than investing in other forms of business. It makes cooperatives less competitive as well, especially in the agricultural processing sector, which requires a lot of capital for start-up and growth. An overview of the federal laws that govern cooperatives in the United States is included in chapter 3. Why cooperate? People who organize and belong to cooperatives do so for a variety of economic, social, and even political reasons.Cooperating with others has often proven to be a satisfactory way of achieving one’s own objectives while at the same time assisting others in achieving theirs. Farmers create farm supply and marketing cooperatives to help them maximize their net profits. This requires both effective marketing of their products for better prices as well as keeping input costs as low as possible. The farmers recognize that they are usually more efficient and knowledgeable as producers than as marketers or purchasers. By selling and buying in larger volumes they can also usually achieve better prices. COOPERATIVES: CHAPTEREmployees organize bargaining associations and labor unions to negotiate collectively with management and owners. In some cases, employees form worker-owned cooperatives. As the name suggests, a worker-owned cooperative is owned and controlled by its em ployees. 4 Employees establish bargaining units and cooperatives in the hopes of increasing their wages and fringe benefits, improving their general working conditions, and ensuring job security. Cooperatives do not, as is sometimes assumed, contradict the goals of capitalism. If that were the case, cooperatives would not play such an important role in the American economy.About 48,000 cooperatives, operating in nearly every business sector imaginable, serve 120 million members, or roughly 4 out of 10 Americans. 5 The top 100 cooperatives in the United States, ranked by revenue, individually generated at least $346 million in revenue during 2002 and in the aggregate, $119 billion. 6 They represent agriculture, finance, grocery, hardware, healthcare, recreation, and energy industries (figure 1. 1). An introduction to cooperatives Consumer cooperatives are established to sell the products a group of consumers want but cannot find elsewhere at affordable prices. The consumer embers are primarily interested in improving their purchasing power—the quantity of goods and services they can buy with their income. They naturally wish to get as much as possible for their money in terms of quantity and quality. As owners, the members have a say in what products their stores carry. 1 ? Cooperatives are especially important to agriculture. In 2002, 3,140 agricultural cooperatives provided roughly 3. 1 million farmers (many farmers are members of more than one cooperative) with agricultural marketing, farm supplies, and other farm-related services. They captured 28 percent of the market share. Figure 1. 1. Top 100 revenue generating cooperatives in the U. S. by sector, 2002 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY 3 In terms of non-agricultural cooperatives, 84 million Americans are members of 9,569 credit unions, 865 electric co-ops serve 37 million people in 47 states, over 1. 5 million families live in housing cooperatives, and over 3 million people are members o f 5,000 food cooperatives. 8 The involvement of so many people in cooperatives in such a highly competitive economy reflects the general satisfaction of members toward their companies and the apparent efficiency and solid inancial performance of these businesses. Chapter 4 provides a more comprehensive discussion of the various types of cooperatives and the extent of their economic success in the United States. In short, cooperatives are organized to serve member needs and are focused on generating member benefits rather than returns to investors. This member-driven orientation makes them fundamentally different from other corporations. Additional cooperative structural characteristics and guiding principles further distinguish them from other business models. In most countries, the cooperative model represents only one of several ifferent ways a business can choose to legally organize. Chapter 5 presents a comparison of the six major alternative business models in the United States . Cooperative management and development To prosper, cooperatives must be well organized, well financed, well managed, and governed well by a committed membership. They must be progressive, adapting to changing business climates, and responsive to their members’ changing needs. Members, the board of directors, and management each have responsibilities within the cooperative. Strong, viable cooperatives require all three groups to do their share.Chapter 6 describes each group’s unique and important role. 4 Although capital, employees, business volume, and good management practices are all very important for successful operations, a co-op’s members are its most important asset. Cooperative success also hinges on effective member education and communication. Indeed, providing education, training, and information to members is one of the seven cooperative principles adopted by the ICA. The unique education needs of cooperatives and the essential elements for a succe ssful education and communication program are also discussed in chapter 6.Cooperative financing is also critical and in today’s complex cooperative organizations it can be quite complicated. Adequate capital is one of the fundamental principles of sound business operation and at the same time one of the biggest challenges facing cooperatives today. Financing options must be consistent with principles of cooperation as well as with federal and state laws. Chapter 7 lays out the main concepts behind cooperative financing, including alternative sources of capital and equity redemption plans. As with other business forms, cooperatives should be established only to meet a well-defined need in he market. Before cooperatives are created, advance research should be done by a steering committee to ensure sufficient support by other potential members in the community. Chapter 8 discusses in greater detail the procedure for organizing cooperatives. A good feasibility study, strong membe rship drives, and a comprehensive business plan are essential ingredients. A final analysis of the cooperative model’s benefits and limitations, to members and the broader community, is presented in chapter 9. COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER Revolutionary roots in England The first cooperative businesses created in Europe rose during periods of great social upheaval and distress caused by dramatic shifts in agricultural and industrial production practices. Prior to the Industrial Revolution (about 1750-1850), most families in England and other parts of Europe were largely self-sufficient, creating enough food and goods for their subsistence and small amounts for trading. The Industrial Revolution introduced the factory system of production and was marked by a rapid succession of remarkable inventions that accelerated the industrialization of business. Examples of inventions during this period include smelting iron with coal instead of charcoal, the otton gin and power loom, and the ste am engine. The writings of Adam Smith at the time, especially his advocacy of the laissez faire principle (no government intervention in the economy), further spurred the revolution. The industrial system gradually replaced cottage industries and home-based production. Workers were required to move into cities to find work. Away from land, their families were increasingly integrated into a market economy; instead of pro- PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN ducing most of their household requirements, especially food, they had no other choice but to purchase them. Advances in production were not, nfortunately, accompanied by fair labor standards. Workers were typically paid very low wages and were subjected to harsh working conditions. 10 People remaining in rural areas were not much better off. An agricultural revolution was already well underway in the 18th century. The introduction of new cultivation methods and crop varieties supported a dramatic change in land tenure patterns. Scattered, small plots of farmland were aggregated into large, enclosed estates, primarily for the purpose of grazing sheep and other live- The historical development of cooperative businesses cannot be disconnected from the social and conomic forces that shaped them. Co-ops then, as now, were created in times and places of economic stress and social upheaval. 9 stock. Between 1760 and 1843, nearly seven million acres of agricultural land in England were enclosed in estates. As a result, large numbers of small farmers were driven from their land into neighboring towns and villages with few remaining jobs. A movement towards greater freedom of expression was another hallmark of this revolutionary period. The citizens of England began to publicly dissent with government policies, taking issue with the status quo and demanding more personal ights. Therefore, the widespread poverty, unemployment, and general social deterioration that were left in the wake of the industrial and agricultural revolut ions were met with a public outcry to the government for improved working and living conditions. THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world T he historical development of cooperative businesses cannot be disconnected from the social and economic forces that shaped them. Co-ops then, as now, were created in times and places of economic stress and social upheaval. 9 Ancient records and archeological discoveries oint to the existence of cooperative organizations created by early civilizations in diverse parts of the world (China, Greece, Egypt, etc. ). But it is the founders of the Rochdale Society in 19th century England who are celebrated for launching the modern cooperative movement. The Rochdale pioneers, and the early European cooperative thinkers and organizers who laid the foundation for their success, are responsible for codifying a guiding set of principles that helped guide the development of cooperatives across the world. 2 ? 5 Early coopera tive societies Robert Owen and In the absence of public assistance, the people ofCharles Fourier— Europe established various types of self-help organizations. Mutual fire insurance companies Cooperative visionaries existed in London and Paris as early as 1530, although the first highly successful and wellknown example was organized in England in 1696, the Amicable Contributionship. 11 The people of England also created Mutual Aid Societies (they eventually became known as Friendly Societies) that offered financial payments and assistance to members in times of sickness, unemployment, or death. 12 By the mid-18th century many well-established societies were already in operation.They were legalized with the passing of the first Friendly Society Act (also called the Rose Act) in 1793. A number of bills were introduced in the 19th century to encourage Friendly Societies since they lessened the public burden. 13 Workers organized labor unions to bargain with employers for more fav orable working conditions and to lobby the government for improved labor legislation. Cooperative or quasi-cooperative industrial businesses were in operation in England by 1760. Most were consumer-controlled organizations focused on flour milling and baking industries. Cooperative orn mills for grinding flour appeared in a number of cities shortly after the turn of the 19th century to cut the cost of flour and prevent tampering by greedy millers. Purchasing cooperatives already existed in most Western European countries by the 18th century. The Weaver’s Society in Fenwick, Scotland (often referred to as â€Å"penny capitalists†) began to purchase supplies as a group in 1769. 14 The precursors to mutuals and unions were guilds, the associations of merchants, artisans, and craftsmen that date back to Medieval times. Guilds had binding rules for production and business practices.Although guilds were created partially in an attempt to establish local trade monopolies, the y incorporated socialist practices: member control, equitable treatment of all members, and financial support of members who were ill or faced family crises. 6 â€Å"Often men wish to escape the realities of life, and when they do, they dream of Utopias. † 15 The first cooperative movement, that is, the establishment of a coherent argument for the cooperative form of organization, gained momentum in the early 19th century with the writings and advocacy efforts of Robert Robert Owen (1771- Owen and William King in 858):â€Å"The Father England and Charles Fourier in of Cooperation. † France. Robert Owen and Charles Fourier were both well-known Utopian Socialists; not only did they envision ideal societies, they tried to create them in Europe and the United States. 16 Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a prominent industrialist who began to advocate the establishment of a new type of community to alleviate the poverty and suffering caused by the Industrial Revolution. Charles F ourier (1772-1837) was a bourgeois, famous French social philosopher whose plans for self-reliant communities were motivated by the French Revolution and his view hat the working class was being dehumanized and repressed. They both envisioned rural villages composed of farms and small-scale industry, all operated cooperatively by the citizens who would also live together communally. Owen originally conceived of these communities as a solution for unemployment, but later believed (like Fourier) that they were a better alternative to private capitalism and competition, providing self-employment opportunities and other conditions that would provide universal happiness. Fourier called his planned communal cities â€Å"phalanxes. † COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER Fourier never found philanthropists willing to fund he creation of a phalanx. After his death, several were attempted in France and more than thirty organized in the United States. 18 The most notable in the United States were Broo k Farm, near Cambridge, Massachusetts (1842-1846), and one in Fond du Lac County (now the city of Ripon), Wisconsin (1845-1850). The phalanxes suffered from a conflict between treating everyone equally and rewarding those who provided more capital and labor. The phalanx model, however, influenced the successful kibbutzim in Israel (discussed later). Owen was a visionary idealist, not a realistic cooperative developer.He was not at all interested, therefore, in helping the early consumer cooperatives in England:â€Å"Joint stock retailing is not the Social System which we contemplate†¦and will not form any part of the arrangements in the New Moral World. †19 In 1839 he did not even bother to respond to an urgent request by Charles Howarth to visit Rochdale, England to discuss organizational plans for a new retail cooperative. Owen’s attack upon individualism, the family, competition, private property, the market economy, and organized religion, alienated many peopl e from cooperation and provoked condemnation of cooperatives from various religious groups.Even so, Owen is often called the â€Å"father of cooperation. † Despite his failures, Owen continued preaching that cooperative production and living were the best medicines for the ills of society. His advocacy stimulated the creation of cooperative societies, labor exchanges (where handicrafts were traded based on the amount of labor involved in their making), and trade unions. Although most of the organizations he started lasted only a short time, PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN they provided the groundwork for another generation of cooperative development in Europe and North America. William King—A cooperative developer and pragmatist Dr. William King (1786-1865), another social reformer in England, was in many respects more responsible than Robert Owen for spreading the cooperative idea and for the actual organization of cooperatives. Although he accepted much of Owen’s so cial philosophy, he disagreed on how to reach those goals. King was more realistic about cooperatives, advocating and inspiring the development of consumer cooperatives across England. As a physician, King became interested in improving the welfare of the working people of Brighton, England. He was involved in organizing numerous ocial and educational institutions, including an infants’ school, a mechanics’ institute, and a library. Between 1828 and 1830, King published (at his own expense) a small magazine called â€Å"The Cooperator† that was widely distributed throughout England. Its 28 issues were a source of inspiration, information, and instruction on cooperation in theory as well as in practice. The magazine advocated a more realistic type of cooperation within reach of the working class. King believed that cooperatives should start small with the original capital supplied by members, a significant deviation from Owen and Fourier’s arge-scale opera tions funded by wealthy investors. King did not necessarily object to Owen’s self-sustaining cooperative communities, as long as they were funded with the members’ own capital and were restricted to Christians. King was a religious fundamentalist who believed that biblical scripture should guide the ethics and operations of cooperatives. He also taught that cooperatives should not pay patronage refunds, but instead reinvest all net profits to increase the scope of their activities and to employ as many members as possible. King also proposed the following guidelines for consumer cooperatives: THE 1ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Owen and Fourier were not abstract thinkers; they laid out very specific details for their communities. For instance, they believed that the communities should contain 1,000-1,800 people living on a relatively small tract of land. Fourier was more explicit: the area should be three square miles. 17 Wealthy supporters of Owen’s ideas were willing to finance the creation of such communities. Four were eventually created: New Harmony, Indiana (USA); Orbiston, Scotland; Ralahine, Ireland; and Queenswood, England. All ultimately failed. 2 ? 7 1) members should pay cash for all merchandise purchased at the cooperative; (2) the co-op should adopt democratic principles of governance; and (3) it should publicize the cooperative movement. In addition to the advocacy of Owen and King, the cooperative movement in England was supported by a number of short-lived cooperative journals, which were circulated between 1825 and 1830. Cooperative congresses also advocated and promoted cooperation; the first took place in 1830 in Manchester, the second in 1831 in Birmingham, and the third in 1832 in London. Owen’s influence and rhetoric were exhibited in these and later congresses.For instance, the Third Congress stated that â€Å"the grand ultimate object of all cooperative societies is c ommunity on land. † What began with a few cooperative societies in 1826 quickly grew to about 300 consumer cooperatives by 1830, many patterned after King’s Brighton Cooperative Trading Association. King’s ideas may have also influenced early American cooperatives. A treasurer of a cooperative in Brighton, England, William Bryan, helped organize a consumer cooperative in New York City in 1830. King was compelled to discontinue his active role in the cooperative movement in the late 1830s for wo reasons: his medical practice was suffering and poor management and internal discontent plagued individual co-op stores. By 1840, the cooperative movement in England was basically at a standstill and King’s ideas were forgotten, ignored in the cooperative literature for several decades. The Rochdale Pioneers In the first wave of consumer cooperatives, a shortlived society was created in Rochdale, England in 1833. James Smithies, one of the original organizers, was i nspired by King’s cooperative magazine and shared it with his co-founders. Their ultimate cooperative goals, however, echoed Owen’s teachings.Although their first co-op effort failed after only two years, a core group of 28 continued to work actively for social reform and eventually created the prototype cooperative model for a modest shop on Toad Lane in 1844. The so-called Rochdale Pioneers were ambitious and had lofty goals for their co-op: (1) to sell provisions at the store; (2) to purchase homes for their members; (3) to manufacture goods their members needed; and (4) to provide employment for their members who were either out of work or poorly paid. In sum, they wanted to â€Å"establish a self-supporting home colony of united interests† nd to â€Å"arrange the powers of production, distribution, education, and government† in the interests of its members. In addition, they hoped to open a â€Å"temperance hotel† in one of the cooperative hou ses to promote sobriety. The foundation for the Rochdale cooperative was built upon the intelligent combination of various ideas that had been tried by previous cooperatives. The Pioneers learned from the co-op failures of the past. For example, the business practices they adopted for their small store, later called the Rochdale Principles (sidebar), were novel primarily in their combination; many had been borrowed rom other cooperatives. The original Rochdale Cooperative shop on Toad Lane. It is now preserved as a museum. 8 COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER The Industrial and Provident Societies Act, authorized in England in 1852, was a major development in the cooperative movement. Prior to the enactment of this law, the Friendly Societies Acts of 1834 and 1846 regulated the registration of cooperatives, even though these acts were designed for mutual-aid groups and not for businesses engaged in trade. Therefore, the consumer cooperatives did not have the proper legal protection essential for their business operations.The acts further prevented them from selling to people other than their members. 1. Voting is by members on a democratic (one-member, one-vote) basis. 2. Membership is open. 3. Equity is provided by members. 4. Equity ownership share of individual members is limited. 5. Net income is distributed to members as patronage refunds on a cost basis. 6. Dividends on equity capital are limited. 7. Exchange of goods and services at market prices. 8. Duty to educate. 9. Cash trading only. 10. No unusual risk assumption. 11. Political and religious neutrality. 12. Equality in membership (no discrimination y gender). Adapted from David Barton,â€Å"Principles,† in David Cobia (ed. ), Cooperatives in Agriculture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. Some of the Rochdale Principles, such as democratic control (one-member, one-vote) and limited dividends on equity capital, are still followed by most cooperatives around the world. Other principles, such as ca sh trading, are clearly outdated in most countries where credit cards and (in agricultural co-ops) seasonal loans are the norm. As a set of guiding principles, they are not necessarily appropriate for all types of cooperatives in all locations.They are after all a product of a historical period and economy and were meant to govern a small retail store (see chapter 4 for further discussion of cooperative principles). The phenomenal success of the Rochdale cooperative, which is still in operation today, was just the boost that the cooperative movement in England needed. Rochdale became the cooperative beacon for others to follow. It provided the organizational pattern that became the prototype for other cooperatives and spurred on the cooperative movement in Europe and North America. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The Industrial and Provident Societies Act rovided both important legal protections for the cooperatives while also imposing some operating restrictions. It protected the propert y of the societies, gave binding legal authority for their rules, safeguarded the savings of their investors, allowed them to sell to non-members, and provided legal status so that an association could sue fraudulent officials. It allowed cooperatives to pay patronage refunds on purchases but limited dividends on shares of stock to five percent. Although members still faced unlimited liability for cooperative debts, share limits of ? 100 per member were enforced.The passage of the Industrial and Provident Societies Act of 1862 loosened some of the restrictions and provided limited liability for members, meaning they would be liable only for co-op debts less than or equal to the value of their stock. Share limits were increased to ? 200 per member and cooperatives were permitted to invest in other cooperatives. As a result of these changes, the organization of the North of England Co-operative Society became possible. Established in 1863 to create cost savings for members by purchasi ng a variety of goods in bulk, today the Co-operative Group comprises a family of businesses employed n a wide range of activities (food, finance, farms, funerals, etc. ). It is a unique consumer-owned business that is the largest of its kind in the world. THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world The first cooperative law Rochdale cooperative principles 2 ? 9 The beginnings of cooperative credit During the 1840s, later called â€Å"the Hungry Forties,† famine and extreme hardship spread throughout Europe. A blight ruined potato crops in many European countries, although Ireland was the most severely hit, during 1845-47. The shortage of potatoes drove up other food prices.Low fishing yields further exacerbated the food shortage, which caused millions of deaths and led to severe economic depression, high unemployment, and political unrest in the region. The Communist Manifesto was published in 1848. During this same year, F. W. Raiffeisen, a mayor of a group of villages in Northern Germany, created a cooperative society to alleviate some of the suffering in his community. The cooperative gave potatoes and bread to the poor. He soon realized, however, that charity alone could not solve the problems of poor farmers; they needed to become self-sufficient and earn more money. Raiffeisen hen started to organize loan societies, which embraced various cooperative features. Although Raiffeisen continued to advocate self-help, his first societies were mainly efforts to transfer money from the rich to the poor. In 1862, he helped the rural farmers of the little town of Anhausen organize a truly cooperative loan society. Early agricultural marketing and farm supply cooperatives in Europe Denmark is generally regarded as the most outstanding example of early and successful cooperative farm marketing and farm supply organizations. 20 The first cooperative creamery in Denmark was established in 1875 at Kaslunde. The early ooperative creameries incorporated some significant improvements in the butter-making process, including a standardized grading system. The high quality butter was marketed under a government brand to reflect their supervision of the grading. The first cooperative creameries were very successful. News of their success and popularity spread to other rural areas of Denmark; many others were soon organized throughout the country. These developments took place without government assistance or subsidies. The early and striking success of cooperatives in Denmark can be primarily attributed to the role of the Folk High School.An institution unique to the country, this school educated young adults in rural areas. The schools were inspired by the philosopher and clergyman, Bishop Nikolai (N. S. F. ) Grundtvig (1783-1873), and popularized by Kristen Meanwhile, Herman Schulze had created a somewhat similar credit institution among artisans Kold, an educator. Grundtvig established the first in Eilenburg i n 1850. He further refined this model Folk High School in 1844; the one created by Kold in 1851, however, was more successful and widely to fit the credit needs of artisans and other smallscale industries and developed other credit organi- replicated.The mission of the schools was to enlighten Danish citizens (beyond what they were zations. Raiffeisen may have been familiar with learning in primary schools) so they could particithese organizations and used them to inform his pate in the governance of the kingdom. They were own co-op development efforts. Both the not meant to be vocational or cooperative training Raiffeisen and Schulze cooperative bank models schools but rather designed to expose students to rapidly spread across Europe. Features of both new ideas and experiences. Today, we would call models were used to form credit unions in North them liberal arts schools.Numerous such schools America. Incidentally, the Credit Union National still thrive in Denmark. Although suppor ted finanAssociation’s headquarters in Madison, Wisconsin was called â€Å"Raiffeisen House† for a number of years. cially by the state, they are free to set their own curricula and are required to be nonvocational and without examinations. 10 COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER Cooperatives around the world The cooperative movement gradually spread around the world in the 19th century (table 2. 1). Another notable cooperative advocate is Sir Horace Plunkett (1854-1932), an Irishman (who spent 10 years as a cattle rancher in the UnitedStates in the 1800s) famous for advocating the benefits of agricultural cooperatives in Ireland and beyond. 21 He was instrumental in creating an international cooperative movement and promoting the cooperative principle of political neutrality. The Irish Cooperative Organization Society (formerly the Irish Agricultural Organization Society), originally founded by Plunkett in 1894, is located in The Plunkett House in Dublin. Today, cooperative business es are found in nearly all countries, from the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and South America to the industrial countries of Europe and North America.Northern Europe, where the cooperative movement took hold very early, still contains a strong cooperative presence, especially in agriculture. Many of the cooperatives in these countries have long histories and are extremely successful. However, as is the case in the United States (see chapter 3), economic pressures have been met with cooperative mergers and consolidations. As a result, cooperative numbers in these countries appear quite low (tables 2. 2 and 2. 3). Cooperative numbers in India, even on a per capita basis, are by comparison astounding. In the case of India and other countries with relatively high ooperative numbers, this situation typically reflects the existence of numerous, local cooperatives. More cooperatives do not imply necessarily that the cooperative sector as a whole is stronger or more competitive, howe ver. The spread of the cooperative business model from 18th century England to such diverse countries as India, Korea and Uganda, points to the universal adaptability and diversity of the cooperative model. Cooperative businesses are found in nearly all countries, from the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and South America to the industrial countries of Europe and North America. PRINCIPLES PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Folk High Schools created trained, rural leadership. They also established bonds of trust among those who came to live and study at the schools. The students developed a willingness to think together, work together, and play together—in short, to cooperate. Although not an intended outcome, the spirit of cooperation produced in these schools has been, without doubt, an important factor in the growth of Denmark’s cooperative movement. 2 ? 11 Table 2. 1. Historical cooperative statistics for se lected countries CountryFirst co-op First co-op law Membership (% of population) Albania 1946 NA NA Austria 1794 1873 47. 4 Belgium 1848 1873 35. 4 Czech Republic 1852 1873 13. 4 Denmark 1851 NA 34. 2 Finland 1870 1901 45. 8 France 1750 1887 30. 1 Germany 1845 1867 27. 9 Greece 1780 1914 9. 9 Iceland 1844 1937 20. 0 Ireland 1859 1893 59. 5 Italy 1806 1886 13. 3 Lithuania 1869 1917 6. 8 Luxembourg 1808 1884 4. 8 Netherlands 1860 1855 41. 1 Norway 1851 1935 36. 4 Poland 1816 1920 NA Portugal 1871 1867 21. 9 Romania 1852 1903 28. 5 Russia 1825 1907 9. 5 Spain 1838 1885 11. 1 Sweden 1850 1895 53. 7 Switzerland 1816 1881 50. 1 Turkey 1863 867 12. 9 United Kingdom 1750 1852 16. 6 United States 1752 1865 56. 7 Yugoslavia 1870 1925 6. 5 NA = not available Source: Adapted from Shaffer, J. (1999). Historical dictionary of the cooperative movement. London: Scarecrow Press, Inc. (pp. 437-39). 12 COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER Region Number of countries Organizations Individual members Societies Africa 1 2 19 27,214 9,561,443 Americas 18 61 43,945 182,486,437 Asia 28 64 480,648 414,383,079 Europe 35 88 197,293 118,473,862 Total 93 232 749,100 724,904,821 Source: International Co-operative Alliance, www. coop. org/statistics. html (July 1,1998). Table 2. 3.Agriculture cooperative statistics from select countries Number of co-ops Country Membership (millions) Brazil 4,744 3. 74 Canada 7,880 14. 52 Columbia 1,936 4. 82 Denmark 1,446 1. 39 Egypt 6,992 4. 28 46 1. 07 23,573 17. 49 Finland France Germany 9,112 21. 64 India 446,784 182. 92 Israel 256 0. 03 Japan 3,860 42. 84 NA 0. 63 Morocco 9,635 0. 68 Norway 4,259 1. 59 Repub. Korea 7,669 17. 07 15,106 Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Table 2. 2. Cooperatives and membership by international region 2 ? 4. 78 Mexico Sweden Switzerland Uganda United Kingdom United States Zambia 16 1. 51 3,131 0. 4 42 9. 04 27,076 156. 19 2,174 0. 57 Source: International Co-operative Alliance, www. coop. org/statistics. html (Apri l 26, 2002). PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY 13 14 COOPERATIVES: CHAPTER The driving forces behind cooperative development in the United States include the following five interrelated dynamics: 1. Market failure (monopoly power, excess supply, missing markets, etc. ). 2. Economic crises (depressions and recessions). 3. New technology. 4. Farm organizations and cooperative advocates. 5. Favorable public policy (presidential interest, legislative initiatives at both state and federal evels, and judicial interpretation). The relative importance of these forces at different periods will become apparent as we trace the path of cooperative development. Since some of the most significant contributions Americans have made to the cooperative model and movement have been in the agricultural sector, farm cooperatives will dominate this discussion. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The first American cooperatives The first recognized cooperative business in the United States (a mutual insura nce company) was founded in 1752, almost a quarter-century before the birth of the country (America achieved independence in 1776).Benjamin Franklin, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, worked with other members of fire fighting associations to create the first successful fire insurance company in the colonies: The Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. 24 Franklin had already formed the Union Fire Company in 1736, which became the model for volunteer fire fighting companies. Franklin had witnessed the success and importance of mutual societies when he was living in England. The Philadelphia Contributionship was based on a similar London association created in 1696. 25 Although European models and European immigrant cultures remained influential, it was in agriculture that co-ops began to take root in new and distinctive North American forms. † 26 Cooperative history, trends, Cooperative history, trends, and laws in the United States and laws in the United States C ooperatives are neither indigenous to the United States, nor are they an American invention. As Fairbairn reminds us,â€Å"The idea of the co-op was both imported by the colonists from Europe and also independently developed and adapted by settlers of European origin under North American conditions. †22 Pilgrims coming to he new world on the Mayflower in 1620 signed the Mayflower Compact, which described the operations of an organization, or constitution, with cooperative characteristics. Once they arrived, the early settlers worked together collectively to clear the land, build homes and communities, start farming, and provide protection for their families. 23 The overview of cooperative development in the United States provided here supports the idea that cooperatives in the United States are both an artifact of early settlers’ European heritage and a collective response to harsh living conditions in rural areas. ? Americ an farmers first attempted to organize in 1785 with the establishment of the Philadelphia Society for Promotion of Agriculture. The first formal farmer cooperatives were created in 1810: a dairy cooperative in Goshen, Connecticut, and a cheese manufacturing cooperative in South Trenton, New Jersey. On the heels of these organizations, other cooperatives involving different commodities were formed in many parts of the country (table 3. 1). There was no identified coordinated leadership and most cooperatives restricted their operations to their local community. Most of he early agricultural cooperatives were ultimately unsuccessful. THE 21ST CENTURY 15 Table 3. 1. Selected early cooperatives and mutuals in the United States Year Cooperative 1752 Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) 1810 Dairy cooperative (Goshen, Conneticut) and cheese cooperative (South Trenton, New Jersey) 1820 Hog marketing, slaughtering, and packi ng cooperative (Granville, Ohio) 1853 Irrigation cooperative (Tulare County, California) 1857 Grain elevator (Madison, Wisconsin) 1862 Tobacco marketing cooperative (Connecticut) 1863

Origins of the Vietnam War From 1945â€1954

Origins of the Vietnam War From 1945–1954 The causes of the Vietnam War trace their roots back to the end of World War II. A French colony, Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) had been occupied by the Japanese during the war. In 1941, a Vietnamese nationalist movement, the Viet Minh, was formed by Ho Chi Minh to resist the occupiers. A communist, Ho Chi Minh waged a guerrilla war against the Japanese with the support of the United States. Near the end of the war, the Japanese began to promote Vietnamese nationalism and ultimately granted the country nominal independence. On August 14, 1945, Ho Chi Minh launched the August Revolution, which effectively saw the Viet Minh take control of the country. The French Return Following the Japanese defeat, the Allied Powers decided that the region should remain under French control. As France lacked the troops to retake the area, Nationalist Chinese forces occupied the north while the British landed in the south. Disarming the Japanese, the British used the surrendered weapons to rearm French forces that had been interned during the war. Under pressure from the Soviet Union, Ho Chi Minh sought to negotiate with the French, who desired to retake possession of their colony. Their entrance into Vietnam was only permitted by the Viet Minh after assurances had been given that the country would gain independence as part of the French Union. First Indochina War Discussions soon broke down between the two parties and in December 1946, the French shelled the city of Haiphong and forcibly reentered the capital, Hanoi. These actions began a conflict between the French and the Viet Minh, known as the First Indochina War. Fought mainly in North Vietnam, this conflict began as a low level, rural guerrilla war, as Viet Minh forces conducted hit and run attacks on the French. In 1949, fighting escalated as Chinese communist forces reached the northern border of Vietnam and opened a pipeline of military supplies to the Viet Minh.   French paratroopers taking part in Operation Castor, a parachute drop on Dien Bien Phu in the Thai district during the Indo-China war. Hulton Archive/Stringer/Getty Images  Ã‚   Increasingly well-equipped, the Viet Minh began more direct engagement against the enemy and the conflict ended when the French were decisively defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The war was ultimately settled by the Geneva Accords of 1954, which temporarily partitioned the country at the 17th parallel, with the Viet Minh in control of the north and a non-communist state to be formed in the south under Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. This division was to last until 1956, when national elections would be held to decide the future of the nation. The Politics of American Involvement Initially, the United States had little interest in Vietnam and Southeast Asia, however, as it became clear that the post-World War II world would be dominated by the US and its allies and the Soviet Union and theirs, isolating communist movements took an increased importance. These concerns were ultimately formed into the doctrine of containment and domino theory. First spelled out 1947, containment identified that the goal of Communism was to spread to capitalist states and that the only way to stop it was to â€Å"contain† it within its present borders. Springing from containment was the concept of domino theory, which stated that if one state in a region were to fall to Communism, then the surrounding states would inevitably fall as well. These concepts were to dominate and guide US foreign policy for much of the Cold War. In 1950, to combat the spread of Communism, the United States began supplying the French military in Vietnam with advisors and funding its efforts against the â€Å"red† Viet Minh. This aid nearly extended to direct intervention in 1954, when the use of American forces to relieve Dien Bien Phu was discussed at length. Indirect efforts continued in 1956, when advisors were provided to train the army of the new Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) with the goal of creating a force capable of resisting Communist aggression. Despite their best efforts, the quality of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was to remain consistently poor throughout its existence. The Diem Regime South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem (1901 - 1963) watching an agricultural show just minutes after an assassination attempt had been made on his life. Keystone/Stringer/Getty Images  Ã‚   A year after the Geneva Accords, Prime Minister Diem commenced a â€Å"Denounce the Communists† campaign in the south. Throughout the summer of 1955, Communists and other opposition members were jailed and executed. In addition to attacking the communists, the Roman Catholic Diem assaulted Buddhist sects and organized crime, which further alienated the largely Buddhist Vietnamese people and eroded his support. In the course of his purges, it is estimated that Diem had up to 12,000 opponents executed and as many as 40,000 jailed.  To further cement his power, Diem rigged a referendum on the future of the country in October 1955 and declared the formation of the Republic of Vietnam, with its capital at Saigon. Despite this, the US actively supported the Diem regime as a buttress against Ho Chi Minh’s communist forces in the north. In 1957, a low-level guerrilla movement began to emerge in the south, conducted by Viet Minh units that had not returned north after the accords. Two years later, these groups successfully pressured Ho’s government into issuing a secret resolution calling for an armed struggle in the south. Military supplies began to flow into the south along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and the following year the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (Viet Cong) was formed to carry out the fight. Failure and Deposing Diem The situation in South Vietnam continued to deteriorate, with corruption rife throughout the Diem government and the ARVN unable to effectively combat the Viet Cong. In 1961, the newly elected Kennedy Administration promised more aid and additional money, weapons, and supplies were sent with little effect. Discussions then began in Washington regarding the need to force a regime change in Saigon. This was accomplished on November 2, 1963, when the CIA aided a group of ARVN officers to overthrow and kill Diem. His death led to a  period of political instability that saw the rise and fall of a succession of military governments. To help deal with the post-coup chaos, Kennedy increased the number of US advisors in South Vietnam to 16,000. With Kennedys death later that same month, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson ascended to the presidency and reiterated the US commitment to fighting communism in the region.